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Paal_101

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    Hard Boiled - The Ultimate Action Movie?

    in Arts and Entertainment

    Posted

    Indeed Erik, on the outside the movie is very cheap and mundane :) As an actual movie telling a story with good characters it fails utterly. But the thing is that one does not watch such a film as Hard Boiled for story and characters. John Woo movies only get good once the guns are drawn and bodies start to fly ;) This is the only reason why this movie is fun, and I guess I'm easy to please that way since I am addicted to fighting and action :P

    Totally, it is a matter of taste. If one loves action and watching totally absurd gunfights with a total lack of story and character, this is the movie to see. However if one is interested in a more insightful action film I would recommend V for Vendetta :D

    An Introduction to Ancient Combat - Part IV - Tactics and Elite Units

    in History Articles

    Posted · Edited by Paal_101

    An Introduction to Ancient Combat

    By

    Paul Basar aka Paal_101

    Individual soldiers may be formidable fighters in their own right, but many average soldiers working as a team can easily overwhelm a force of opponents fighting as individuals. This rule of war is thousands of years old, well understood in the Bronze Age and developed to dizzying heights in the Classical Age. As armies grew to be more and more professional, with the stakes becoming far more serious than the loss of cattle or crops, tactics became vital to military success. Playing one's strengths to the maximum while limiting those of your enemy's and covering your own weaknesses as you exploit his are at the root of tactics. Each form of combat described here showcases how nations or civilizations enacted this maxim. Some were more successful than others, with adaptability being the key to success. There was no greatest system, each one had its strengths and weaknesses, but each one was perfect for the specific situation it had been designed in. Within these systems of teamwork, the individual remained key, for without its parts a machine cannot function. Likewise the ancient peoples recognized the need for elite units of troops, men who would perform beyond the capabilities of the average citizen soldier, who would serve as examples for others to follow. These men were venerated in ancient writings and their place in history is justly deserved. Part IV of the series discusses the methods of combat employed by ancient armies and the elite formations within these armies that led them into some of the greatest battles of histoy.

    Part IV - Tactics and Elite Units

    “You will never do anything in this world without courage. It is the greatest quality of the mind next to honor.” – Anonymous Greek Proverb

    Formation Tactics

    Combat formations allowed for armies to maximize their offensive capabilities and reduce their vulnerabilities to counterattack. The origin of such tactics were hardly new to the Classical civilizations, since formations were used heavily in the Bronze Age by the Mycenaeans, Hittites, and Egyptians, massing spearmen and archers into respective units to support one another and maximize firepower. The Greeks and Romans produced some of the most famous formation tactics of the ancient world, although the Macedonians and Carthaginians were also large subscribers.

    Hellenistic

    The most famous combat formation used was the Greek phalanx. Designed to maximize the strengths of the hoplite, the phalanx was ingenious in its simplicity, being easy to teach to large numbers of citizen soldiers with very little time to prepare for war yet proving to be amazingly effective on the battlefield. Structurally the phalanx was hardly complex, consisting of a rank of men with further ranks behind them to form a solid mass of hoplites. This massed form of combat was quite old by the time of the Greeks, but during the 7th century BC they were the ones who combined equipment, tactics, and training to create a formalized method of fighting.

    In combat hoplites would form up in a tight formation, usually four deep in early phalanxes, using the notes of flute players to keep them in step with each other as the formation marched forward towards the enemy. Before coming into close quarters with the opposing phalanx, the men would overlap their shields, with each man protecting the hoplite to his left. This left the men on the right flank of the phalanx highly vulnerable. Spears were the weapons of choice, hefted above the shield wall by the men of the first few ranks, those hoplites in the rear often stabbing past the heads of the men in front. If a man was killed, the one behind him stepped forward to take his place, joining the shield wall in his own right. In hand-to-hand combat, the two opposing phalanx would attempt to push back the other or strike at the exposed right flank of the enemy formation. Most battles ground down into massive shoving matches between formations of thousands of men, with the rear ranks placing their shields on the backs of those in front of them as they pushed forward. Eventually one side would have to give and that side could expect their phalanx to disintegrate upon that event, leading to mass slaughter as men were hacked down or trampled by the on-rushing enemy.

    Of paramount importance in phalanx combat was teamwork, since moving as one and covering the man to the left was vital to hold the formation together. The hoplon was uniquely designed to allow this ability, the result being that each hoplite was protected on his left side by his own shield and on his right by his neighbor’s. This of course left the right flanks of the men on the right-hand side exposed, often causing the extreme pulls to the left seen in phalanx combat, as the men tried to squeeze closer towards their left-hand neighbors for added protection. The right hand side was constantly seen as the weakest point in a phalanx and Spartan kings made a point of commanding the phalanx from the first rank on the right side. In most of the armies of Greece, the bravest and best-equipped men, often serving as officers such as lochagos and polemarchs, occupied the right flank of the phalanx.

    As time passed various improvements were made to the phalanx, usually involving the addition of more men. It was soon discovered that adding additional ranks to the formation could increase the vital forward momentum of a phalanx. Soon the standard 4-man phalanx depth was increased to 8, although this could be halved to allow for a longer line to prevent the phalanx’s Achilles’ heel, flanking. But in exchange the formation would be significantly weakened enough to be smashed through in a frontal assault. It was the Thebans who took the phalanx to its greatest extent, by adding additional ranks to form a massive 24 deep formation. This extra deep formation was placed on the left of the Theban line to smash through the vulnerable right flank of their opponents, the rest of their line made up of a standard depth phalanxes. Finally the great Theban general Epaminondas fielded a gargantuan 50-deep phalanx at the Battle of Leuctra, which crushed a far smaller Spartan formation.

    The phalanx proved to be a great success. It allowed men with little training to fight effectively against many different opponents with excellent chances of victory. The Spartans in particular mastered the art of phalanx drill, making their formations of hoplites the fastest, steadiest, and most powerful of any of the city-states. The power of the phalanx lay in its ability to mow down any force that stood in its way, yet this was ironically its greatest weakness. Being such a large formation reliant on a rigidly held shield wall the phalanx was unable to turn quickly, since this required a coordinated maneuver by all the men in the formation. As such the phalanx was vulnerable to flanking attacks, a fact that was heavily exploited by later opponents such as the Romans. Secondly, the speed of the phalanx, although impressive for such a large force of men, was hardly enough to catch fast moving light infantry such as peltasts, who were capable of bringing a force of hoplites to their knees, as seen at the Battle of Sphacteria. Yet another weakness was the need for flat ground to march on, since the phalanx would lose cohesion over rocky terrain. Despite these flaws, the phalanx remained the best combat formation in the world for 400 years, given new life by the Macedonians, in addition to being used extensively in its original form by the early Romans and Etruscans, while the Persians made an attempt to form their own similar type formations with less success.

    The Macedonians drastically revamped their army during the reign of King Philip II, father of Alexander the Great. Initially an army of light infantry, Philip modeled his new soldiers on the Greek hoplites, in particular those of Thebes. In addition he mandated Theban-style deep formation phalanx fighting albeit it with one major change. Instead of the standard 8-foot hoplite spear, Macedonian troops were equipped with a 13, later 19, foot pike known as a sarissa. Due to its length it had to be carried under arm instead of over the shield, allowing for extremely close formations of soldiers armed with this weapon. In combat men of the Macedonian phalanx would move in tight order, with the first 5 ranks holding their sarissae down to form a bristling wall of spearheads for the enemy to cut through. The hoplon was completely abandoned, with the Macedonians using a smaller round bronze-faced shield known as an aspis, relying instead on the massed pikes to provide a physical barrier between them and the enemy.

    Perhaps the great change to the phalanx made by the Macedonians was the addition of tactical flexibility in the form of the syntagma. This was a block of men, 16 columns of 16 men each, forming a unit of 256 men. These men trained together, lived together, and fought together under the command of their officers. It can be roughly equated to a modern infantry company, serving as its own independent unit on the battlefield. By combining multiple syntagma together, large phalanxes could be formed. On the flip side, individual syntagma could be broken off to fight in specific areas or back to the reserve, giving the commander enhanced flexibility far and away from the rather ponderous traditional phalanx. With all the syntagma formed up, the result was a massive wave of men behind a hedge of spears that was suicidal to attack from the front. Opponents were held off at the end of the sarissae while the Macedonian troops pushed steadily forward, crushing opposing formations with their sheer momentum.

    This style of fighting eventually became know as phalangite warfare, taken from the name the type of soldier used in it, to distinguish it from traditional hoplite combat. It, like its predecessor, proved to be extremely effective on the battlefield, yet featured the same flaws of the traditional phalanx in its vulnerability to flanking and loss of cohesion on rough ground. The latter was particularly devastating as keeping in step with the other phalangites kept the wall of spears intact. The Romans in particular were adept at exploiting gaps caused in the Macedonian phalanx when men lost step with each other. As well they should have, for the Romans had fought the Macedonian phalanx in Carthage, Seleucid Syria, Mithridatic Pontus, and in Macedonia itself, a testament to the power and popularity of phalangite combat.

    European and Asian

    While the Celts are more famously known for their mad-dash charges to the blaring notes of carnyx and war cries they too practiced a loose form of formation tactics. In combat Roman writers remarked on the ability of the pilum to pin two Gallic shields together, obviously indicating some sort of overlapping shield formation. This most likely was not a strictly enforced Celtic military doctrine, but its mention denotes a sense of common occurrence, making it certain that the Celts could adopt close formations during the approach to the enemy. Obviously such a formation would severely handicap a Celtic swordsman at close range, giving him no room with which to swing his longsword. But such a formation would be highly useful during the rush towards opposing Roman troops, protecting them from the inevitable pilum barrages that would rain down on them as the Celts closed for hand-to-hand combat. Once safely past the pila, Celtic warriors could break off to fight their individual actions. In particular the Celts displayed their formation tactics at the Battle of Cannae, where they were forced to hold in a particularly uncharacteristic defensive position against a Roman assault. Likewise the neighboring Germanics were documented using combat formations, in particular the use of wedge formations allowed them to narrow the odds against better-equipped opponents.

    The Iberians are far more famous for their guerilla warfare tactics but were also extremely capable in set piece battles, where they maximized the defensive aspect of the scutum by the use of closely packed formations. Unlike their Celtic relatives, the Iberians were far more capable on the defensive, coupled with exceptional offense. The instruments of this philosophy were heavy infantry called scutarii by the Romans, traditional field troops, similar in many ways to Roman legionnaires. Forming up in ranks, Spanish troops would march towards the opposing force, discharging a flight of javelins at roughly 40 yards before closing with the sword or spear. This form of combat was inherently similar to that practiced by the Roman legions, leading some nationalistic individuals to claim that the Romans picked up such tactics from the Iberians along with such weapons as the gladius and pugio. Despite the similarities, the Romans were fighting in such a manner long before they encountered the Iberians. Yet it is a surprising quirk that two cultures separated by two mountain ranges and the Mediterranean Sea would develop similar forms of combat.

    As an army heavily reliant on archers, the Persians were well aware of the power of massed bowmen. They developed a reputation for the swarms of arrows they could unleash upon command, blanketing the targeted area with shafts. In particular they were used to great effect in slaughtering the remaining Spartans and Thespians at the Battle of Thermopylae on Land Stand Hill, overcoming the hoplites’ armor with massive storms of arrows. In addition these massed formations of archers caused considerable havoc amongst the Greek lines during the Battle of Plataea. However this battle also showed their greatest weakness, when Spartan and Tegean hoplites smashed headlong into the Persian archers, wreaking considerable destruction. To counter such events, the Persians usually fielded mixed formations of troops. The first rank was made up of spearmen carrying the large rectangular shield known as a spara. Behind the spearmen, or sparabara, the archers would form up six or seven ranks deep in relative safety. These so called sparabara formations were often placed close to the front lines, giving the Persians immense ranged weapon support for the close-combat infantry. Its great weakness was the inherent fragility of all Persian troops to withstand heavy frontal attacks due to lack of heavy armor and shields.

    Roman

    Considered to be the one of the greatest formation tactics of the ancient world was the magnificently designed Roman manipular combat system. Developed in the 4th century BC, manipular warfare revolved around the use of formations of men known as maniples, literally translated as “handfuls”. During the time of the Punic War, Roman armies fielded three lines of heavy infantry, the vanguard hastati, the middle principes, and the rear triarii. Each of these lines was made up of maniples of differing sizes, the hastati and principes in 120 man units, with the triarii in 60 man formations. Each of these units was formed into a square known as agminem formate, the basic formation of the Roman army. The men of the maniples were trained to adopt close or loose order upon command. The Romans typically preferred to have more open formations than the Greeks as a general rule, with each man having the ability to move his own shield freely without risk of catching it with those of his comrades. Ideally each man would have an area of 3 feet in diameter around him, with 6 feet between each rank.

    The three-line battle system, known generally as manipular warfare, required considerable training and effective leadership by officers to work. Fortunately for Rome this was of no great concern as there were scores of citizen soldiers willing to fight for long periods of time and take in the training required. Battles fought by the Romans at this time involved complex maneuvers that demanded excellent communication and coordination to work effectively, again something that was trained into the men of the army. Before battle the various maniples would array themselves in a checkerboard pattern, with the principes covering the gaps between the formations of the hastati, with the triarii in turn covering the gaps in their formations. This gave the enemy no weak points to exploit while allowing the Roman commanders the luxury of room for additional movement and redeployment before the main clash began.

    In combat, after the velite light infantry had dispersed the opposing light troops and harried the opposing formation, the hastati would advance first, pulling the maniples together to form a solid line. After the initial combat, the hastati would usually pull back, returning to their respective maniples, allowing the principes to advance through the gaps to take up the fight with fresh men. Once the principes had advanced, the hastati would wait in reserve, resting and gathering their strength before trading places with the principes again if required. Throughout Roman history it was the ability of the army to throw a second line of fresh troops at the enemy that often wore down the opposing force and sealed victory for Rome. If the battle went poorly and a general retreat was sounded, the triarii would open up the gaps between the maniples to allow the hastati and principes to retreat in maniple formation behind them before forming a solid wall of spears and withdrawing with their faces to the enemy.

    This form of warfare remained relatively untouched for almost 500 years through the Republic and Empire, although by the 1st century BC the cohort had replaced the maniple as the basic unit of the legion, numbering roughly 480 men, itself made up of six units of 80 men called centuries. The same concepts of manipular warfare continued to be used such as multiple lines and replacing wearied troops, albeit without the distinct differences of hastati and triarii after the Marian Reforms in 101 BC. Continued emphasis was impressed upon the immense tactically mobility of the system. Roman formations were often some of fastest moving heavy infantry in the ancient world, easily outpacing and outmaneuvering the slow and unwieldy Hellenistic phalanx. This form of combat was used for at least five centuries in its original form before being replaced by more Germanic style tactics in the Late Empire, where concepts like the shield wall were introduced into the Roman Army.

    The ability of the cohorts to change formation individually was a key factor on the battlefield, allowing legionnaires to adapt to the various opponents they met. In particular the wedge formation, or cuneum formate, was an extremely effective offensive formation, while others such as repellere equites were large squares used to repel cavalry. The orbem formate was a circular formation made up of legionnaires with archers in the middle, used when surrounded or told to hold ground. The famous testudinem formate, or testudo, was a formation in which Roman soldiers would pack together and use their shields as one unit to protect themselves from the sides, directly forward, and overhead. In siege situations it proved to be an effective means of reaching enemy fortifications while under enemy fire. It could also support men climbing over the shields to scale barricades.

    Elite Units

    As with modern armies, elite units and soldiers were integral to the morale and performance of ancient armies. These units were renowned for their combat performance and their effect upon the morale of other soldiers. As with modern armies, some of these units were specially created, intended to serve prominent roles on the battlefield and in many cases act as royal bodyguards in times of peace. A common factor in the success of these units and soldiers was the fact that almost all of them were professional warriors. By having war as their trade, these soldiers were able to focus on training and conditioning, allowing them to outclass the more common citizen soldier whose training was far less complete. Elite units were highly regarded not only by their own side but also by the enemies they faced, making them extremely valuable as a psychological weapon before the battle even began. Somewhat contrary to their portrayal in Hollywood and modern literature, elite units were not always at the forefront of the fight during the initial stages. Often times they were far too valuable to sacrifice in the first clashes of the battle, often being held back until the enemy had been significantly weakened. Instances of this include the Immortals at Thermopylae and the Praetorian Guard at Idistaviso. The Greeks were a departure from this, throwing all of their units into combat almost immediately, as seen by the Spartans at Plataea and the Theban Sacred Band at Chaeronea.

    Spartans

    Spartiates were the upper echelon of Spartan society, world renowned today as the most martial society in the history of the world. From the day they were born to the time of their death, Spartiates were warriors, ready to fight at a moments notice in the defense of their city. While the day-to-day economic tasks were carried out by the lower class perioikoi and manual labor by helot slaves, the Spartiates were free to pursue the martial traditions laid out by the Spartan sage Lycurgus in the 8th century BC. In it was the stipulation that all full-blooded Spartan men had to serve as soldiers in the service of the city-state. The struggle to survive was constantly rammed home to Spartiates, having to pass a physical examination days after being born or be left to die of exposure. Already judged physically capable, Spartan boys were trained in combat from the age of 7, when they were entered into state run military schools known as agoge to increase physical fitness. After six years they were rousted out of the school to survive in the wilderness for a period of time with no supplies, teaching them to live off the land. Initial military training would have begun slightly before or after this exercise, leading to the Spartan’s acceptance into a barracks known as a syssitia at age 20. These units of 15 men were used to perpetuate the Spartan practice of military homosexuality between a younger soldier and a more experienced soldier. While not a physical relationship evocative of the Theban Sacred Band, an erotic overtone was used to tighten the bond between the older soldier and the new recruit for the purpose of passing knowledge to the younger man. Now the young Spartiate was considered ready for combat. By being able to focus his entire being into training, the Spartiate was extremely capable. As a whole they were stronger, faster, and more aggressive than the hoplites of other city-states, with better phalanx drill than any other Greek opponent.

    While the Spartiates were considered the greatest soldiers of Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean during the 5th and 4th centuries, they were also the elite members of the Spartan army itself, which had the bulk of its numbers supplied by the perioikoi. Due to the intense focus on martial preparedness, Spartan men were unable to spend much time with their wives and when combined with constant military action this lead to a slowly decreasing population of full blooded Spartan citizens. Men born of mixed Spartiate/Periokoi parentage were not allowed to become Spartiates themselves, leading to the continuing drop in numbers suffered by the Spartans during the 4th century. On the battlefield, the elite Spartiates were stationed on the right flank, as seen with many other Hellenic armies. This position was vulnerable to flanking attacks, as the men on the right were only half protected by their own shield, covering the right side of the man to their left. To fight on the right side proved one’s courage and skill, something Spartan hoplites were all too willing to do. Above all their refusal to surrender was famous, even more so after the surreal stand at Thermopylae in 480 BC. It also lead to increased casualties, accentuating the already strained population decline in Sparta, indirectly leading to the fall of Spartan power to Thebes in the 4th century BC.

    Spartan tactics were identical for the most part to those used by other Greek city-states. They would form up into phalanx formation and march forward, although they were known for having extreme discipline while on the move, far better than that shown by their fellow Greeks. Their patience under fire was aptly shown at Plataea, where they endured barrage after barrage of Persian archery without moving, waiting for the order to attack, only moving once forced to by other attacking Greek troops. In addition their ability to work as a team allowed them to take on large numbers of opponents, as seen at Thermopylae. All throughout the Peloponnesian War the Spartans remained unbeaten on land, thanks to the extreme skill of the Spartiates in combat. After the war Spartan mercenaries were highly sought after, used by the Persians at Cunaxa to great effect. During the 5th century BC the Spartans developed an awesome reputation, regarded, somewhat truthfully, as being unbeatable, resulting in the domination of Greece by Sparta.

    But there was a fatal flaw in the entire system, which was the inability to adapt to change. In particular the rigidly unbreakable Spartan caste system ensured that the numbers of Spartiates would continue to decline, and with it the highly capable military prowess Sparta was so famous for, having to consistently rely on the less capable but more numerous periokoi. Thanks to the falling birthrate, the Spartiates’ numbers dwindled until the 4th century, when they were defeated at the Battle of Leuctra by the Thebans, for which the Spartans were only able to muster a few thousand Spartan citizens. Even more humiliating was the fact that the Spartans had numerical superiority of roughly 2 to 1 in that particular engagement. In another failure to adapt to change, the Spartans were overwhelmed by the never before seen sloped battle line deployed by the Thebans, in addition to a heavily weighted phalanx on the Spartan right flank, which crumbled in the face of an overwhelming onslaught. With marked the end of Spartan military dominance and eventual slide into political obscurity. Yet the legend of Spartan military proficiency was never forgotten, living on into the present day as a laconic term for the ultimate soldier.

    Sacred Band

    The Sacred Band was the name of two elite fighting forces of the ancient world, one fielded by the Thebans and the other by Carthage. The Theban Sacred Band had its origins in the Bronze Age, consisting of 150 chariot teams of driver and warrior. In the Classical Greek age the Sacred Band served as 300 elite hoplites, leading the Theban phalanx. A unique feature of the Theban Sacred Band was the recruitment of 150 pairs of homosexual lovers, drawing on the bond between them to increase ferocity in combat combined with extensive training. The official unit was established in 378 BC and immediately showed its martial prowess, withstanding all challengers during the brutal wars between Thebes and Sparta during the 4th century BC. They participated in the brutal battles of Leuctra, Mantinea, and Tegyra, serving with distinction and proving a match for the Spartans, man for man. The end of Theban domination of Greece at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC against Philip of Macedon also sealed the fate of the Sacred Band. During the course of the battle, the Macedonian Companion Cavalry, under the overall command of the future Alexander the Great, broke through the Theban line and surrounded the Sacred Band on the Greek right flank, the position of honor. Unable to retreat, the men of the Sacred Band fought bravely against the onrushing Macedonian cavalry in a last stand worthy of the Spartans at Thermopylae. Once the battle had ended, only 46 members of the Sacred Band remained alive, all heavily wounded. The 254 dead hoplites of the Sacred Band were buried in a common grave, marked by a large statue of a lion. A modern replica of the ancient monument still marks the site to this day, under which 254 skeletons were found when excavated. It is perhaps a fitting testament to the professionalism and fighting prowess of the Sacred Band that Philip himself shed tears over their slain corpses on the battlefield.

    Inspired by the famous display of courage shown by the Theban unit, Carthage developed its own Sacred Band. More correctly Carthage created two units, one infantry and one cavalry. Both employed professional soldiers recruited from among the citizens of Carthage, a departure from the traditional mercenary armies fielded by the Punics. Men who served with the Sacred Bands were guaranteed positions as officers within Carthage’s large mercenary forces later on in their careers. The infantry unit was the Sacred Band of Baal, fighting as phalangites, while the Sacred Band of Tanit, or Astarte, was modeled upon the famous Macedonian Companion Cavalry. Both of these units were substantially larger than their Theban counterparts, with the Sacred Band of Tanit numbering some 2500 men. A signature of the Sacred Bands of Carthage was the wearing of white linothorax and the carrying of white shields in combat. White was viewed by the Carthaginians as the color of death and proudly displayed it on the equipment of their most elite troops. One major difference from the Theban Sacred Band was the absence of homosexuality in the ranks of the Carthaginian units, due to Punic aversion to such practices. The Sacred Bands of Carthage met a similar fate to their Theban counterparts, being defeated and destroyed while fighting the Romans during the First Punic War.

    Macedonian

    Perhaps the most famous of the elite units of the ancient world were the Macedonian Hetairoi, or Companion Cavalry. These elite heavy cavalry were an impressively skilled unit of roughly 3000 men divided into squadrons of 225 men known as ilai, but were capable of fighting on foot when necessary. Officially formed during the reign of Philip the One Eyed but dating back to an earlier force of professional soldiers attached to the Macedonian royal house, the Hetairoi were recruited from the Macedonian nobility but also from among the skilled horsemen of Thessally, the Greek city states, and men from around the Greek world. Equipped with heavy armor, riding the best horses, and equipped with 9-foot lances known as xyston with swords as secondary weapons, in the 4th century BC most commonly a kopis, the Companions fought hand to hand with the enemy, relying on their high speed tactics to overwhelm numerically larger enemy troops.

    In combat the ilai of Hetairoi were formed into large wedge formations and used as the offensive arm of the Macedonian army, breaking through enemy lines and engaging enemy cavalry. Thanks to their armor they were able to stand up well against the lightly equipped troops of the Persian army, proving key to the victories at Granicus and Issus, while performing beyond common bravery at the Battle of Gaugamela under Alexander the Great. In fact the great conqueror himself often led on squadron of the Companions into combat at each of the major battles he fought, providing a personal example for his men to follow and no doubt inspiring their efforts. The Hetairoi developed a well-deserved, awe-inspiring reputation, leading to the creation of copycat units among the Diadochi. But more importantly the Hetairoi set the tone for cavalry warfare for the next 500 years, defining an entire way of combat. Their success in an age of infantry showed the value of cavalry as an offensive weapon for the first time. As a result, Hetairoi tactics, equipment, and methods spreading across the Hellenic world going on to influence cavalry development among peoples as diverse as the Carthaginians, Epierians, and the Romans.

    The Hetairoi were far above the other men of the professional Macedonian army in prestige, potentially alienating many potential recruits who would otherwise become members of the highly trained infantry. To counter this Philip II dubbed his phalangites Pezhetairoi, or Foot Companions, elevating his heavy infantry above the status of a lowly peasant soldier. While not an elite unit in of their own right since they were the corps of the army, the Pezhetairoi were nonetheless far superior to the regular troops fielded by the Greek city-states, thereby justifying their inclusion as an elite force. The first large-scale, government-organized professional infantry force in the world, the Pezhetairoi were the muscle that propelled Macedon to the status of world superpower in the 4th century BC, using the sophisticated tactics borrowed from the Thebans and improved upon through constant training and combat experience. Their leaders were minor Macedonian nobility but the soldiers themselves were young men recruited from the general population, trained and conditioned in a manner reminiscent of the Romans in centuries to come. Their equipment was provided free of charge by the Crown, although they were held responsible for the loss of any piece granted to them. In addition each man was required to carry 30 days rations when on the march, even during peacetime training marches. As a result the Pezhetairoi were prepared to march long distances, being totally self-sufficient. This training paid off during the campaigns of Alexander the Great, when individual phalangites marched across Asia and back in the course of a decade.

    Following the Macedonian doctrine of Theban-style phalanx tactics, the Pezhetairoi were able, with the use of syntagma, to adopt slanted battle lines with variously weighted sections by stacking syntagma behind each other. On the wings of the phalanx would be cavalry, heavy and light, to prevent flanking and to strike hard at gaps opened up in the enemy line by the Pezhetairoi. Contrary to common belief, the Pezhetairoi were far more defensive than one would at first imagine. Marching in formation, the first five ranks of phalangites would lower their sarissa into, forming a wall of spears. Enemy troops would usually be unable to break through the thicket of spearheads, bypassing one only to be impaled by the next. In this way the slow moving Pezhetairoi would wear down the enemy and break up their formation enough to allow the Hetairoi to strike through the enemy line, ending the battle. While this was the preferred Macedonian tactic, it however did not mean that the Pezhetairoi were incapable of overtly offensive tactics. A Macedonian phalanx on the move was essentially unstoppable, moving like a bulldozer over everything it came into contact with. However due to the weaknesses of the phalanx this was kept to a minimum to maximize the strengths of the Pezhetairoi, namely strong unmovable defensive formations. When used this way in concert with cavalry, the Pezhetairoi were an unstoppable force, allowing them to defeat a myriad of enemies fighting in different styles. Most famous for their fighting against the Persians, the Pezhetairoi were victorious against such opponents as the Athenians and Thebans, the Indians, Illyrians, Thracians, and Celts.

    Another unit most likely organized by Philip II and later used to great effect by his son Alexander were the Hypaspists, or Shield Bearers. These men were similar to the Pezhetairoi, fighting alongside them in combat, but were renowned for being slightly more mobile. There is considerable discussion on whether this refers to lighter equipment or superior training in tactical movement, since ancient sources are somewhat vague on the topic. Whatever the truth of the matter, the Hypaspists were an elite corps of 3000 men organized into three battalions of 1000 men apiece, known as chiliarchies. The first of these was known as the Agema and served as the Macedonian king’s personal bodyguard. On the battlefield they served as frontline troops, fighting on the extreme right flank of the Macedonian phalanx, the position of honor. To their left would be the main body of the Pezhetairoi while to their right were the Companion Cavalry. The key role of the Hypaspists in combat was to prevent the flanking of the phalanx on the vulnerable right side. This may be where their famed mobility, described literally as “most agile” by Arrian, would come in, allowing a formation of Hypaspists to fight not only to the front, but to the right side as well. It was a difficult position to hold and the consistent successful performance of the Hypaspists in fulfilling this role made them one of the premiere fighting units of the 4th and 3rd centuries BC.

    Immortals

    Known worldwide as the Immortals, the elite Persian troops of the Shah-an-Shah’s personal bodyguard were widely regarded as some of the best troops of the 6th and 5th centuries. The Immortals called themselves the Companions, although they are known by their more famous name, even within antiquity, due to Herodotus confusing the official Persian name Anusiya, companion, with Anausa, immortal. However their numbers were consistently kept at 10,000 by the constant recruitment of new men into the unit upon the death or incapacitation of an existing member, hence the name Immortals among the Greeks. In particular only Persian and Median troops could apply to join the elite regiment, all others being completely excluded from the recruitment process. In structure they were a highly skilled unit of 10,000 infantrymen, composed of spearmen and archers. Many of the Immortals carried bows in addition to close quarter weapons, effectively doubling as light and heavy infantry. Unlike most of the Persian army, they were equipped with high quality armor, usually of the scale variety, although later on during the 5th and 4th centuries BC they wore Greek-style linen cuirasses. They were often quite wealthy, wearing large amounts of gold on their person when marching into combat and having the characteristically Persian orb-like counterbalance on their spears made of gold for officers and silver for the regular Immortals.

    In combat they were deployed in units of ten men known as satapatish, fighting in the same manner as regular Persian infantry. Rather than leading the first wave, the Immortals were most often held in a reserve, being thrown into combat to finish off an already weakened enemy, such as at Thermopylae. Likewise in the same battle in an impressive display of discipline and skill they were used to outflank the Greeks from behind, performing an extremely risky night march through rough terrain to reach their destination, yet arriving in full force. Generally the Immortals stayed close to the king, fulfilling their role as bodyguards even on the battlefield, accompanying him on campaign. In this case it is highly likely that they fought in the campaigns of the great kings Cyrus and Darius in Lydia, Scythia, and India in addition to their well-known role in the Greco Persian Wars under Xerxes. The Immortals continued to serve for sometime after this titanic struggle, most likely having returned to Persia with Xerxes after the defeat at Salamis. After this the fate of the Immortals becomes far more obscure, although they appear to have continued on in different forms until the fall of Achaemenid Empire at Gaugamela in 331 BC.

    Roman

    The Praetorian Guard are perhaps the most famous single unit of the Roman army known today, almost exclusively as king-makers, raising and assassinating emperors in wholesale fashion following the reign of Septimius Severus in the early 3rd century AD. However their original role was far less political, intended to serve as an elite bodyguard for the emperor and as the only military unit in Italy, giving the ruler complete control of the vital home peninsula rather than to one of the ambitious legionary commanders who so often declared themselves Imperator. Officially established in the year 27 BC to fulfill that role by the Emperor Augustus, the Guards’ concept was far older, dating back to the days of the old Roman Republic, when the commander of a field army, the praetor, had a personal force of handpicked men that he could rely on to fight to the death to protect his person. In addition such a grouping of highly skilled veterans rendered them a powerful force on the battlefield in the violent days of the Punic and Macedonian Wars. When he became ruler of the Roman world, Augustus realized that to maintain power he needed a powerful force of elite soldiers to enforce his authority. Made up of acclaimed members of the regular legions, the Praetorian Guard consisted of nine cohorts of roughly 500 men apiece, although this was later increased to 1000. With anywhere between 4500 and 9000 infantry with an additional 270 cavalry on hand, the Praetorians maintained power in Italy on behalf of the emperor with the added benefit of being the only Roman troops allowed south of the River Rubicon in northern Italy.

    While they served primarily as the emperor’s bodyguard and political enforcer, the Praetorians had an illustrious career on the battlefields of the ancient world. All of its members were veterans of the field legions, having seen combat in one shape or form. All had proven their skill, courage, endurance, and above all loyalty to Rome. Although the later did not always transpose into loyalty to the monarch, the Praetorians were renowned as field combatants and as the foremost champions of Roman military power. The first major engagement the Guard took part in was the Battle of Idistaviso in 16 AD against the Germanic Cherusci. Two cohorts, totaling 1000 men, of the Praetorian Guard were on hand for what proved to be revenge for the catastrophic defeat of the Roman army seven years previously in Teutoburg Wald at the hands of the German commander Arminius. Later on during the 1st century AD the Praetorians found themselves increasingly on the front lines, fighting during the various battles of the Year of Four Emperors and later in the wars of expansion undertaken by Trajan, including Dacia and Mesopotamia.

    Later on they battled the ferocious Marcommani and Quadi during the 2nd century AD along the Danube River, accompanying Emperor Marcus Aurelius during his extensive campaigns in the region. Their record in combat was exemplary throughout the violent 3rd century, but their final end came in 312 AD when the Praetorian Guard sided with Maxentius during the civil war with the future emperor Constantine the Great. As fate would have it, the Praetorians made up most of Maxentius’ army at the Battle of Milvian Bridge, where they were soundly defeated, and disbanded soon after, replaced by the Scholae units created by Constantine. Despite their unwholesome reputation as assassins and political shadow-men, the Praetorian Guard were nonetheless renowned for their capacity as pure soldiers and their ability to win battles when employed, thanks to their experience and sheer tenacity.

    The Roman legions could be classified in their own right as elite units by their very nature; highly trained professional soldiers of uncommon bravery with excellent equipment and well-developed tactics leading to unmatched success on the battlefields of the ancient world. But even among these units there were those that were considered above the rest, many of them given the monikers of Victrix in recognition of their skill in combat. Victrix denoted a great victory in large part due to the actions of that legion.

    One of the earliest of these legions was Legio VI Victrix, which received its title for actions in Spain, then was transferred to Britain, where it fell into disfavor after mutinying against Emperor Commodus. Another was Legio XIV Gemina Martia Victrix, translated as “Twice Martially Victorious”, fighting during the invasion of Britain and against Boudicca before being transferred in the 3rd century to the Continent, fighting against the Parthians, then managing to survive on the Danube front until the 5th century AD. Perhaps the most famous of the Victrix legions was Legio XX Valeria Victrix, or “Valorous and Victorious”, having gained a reputation in Spain and then against the Germans during the reign of Augustus. In particular they were famous for the instance during one battle against the Marcomanni in which they managed to break through the enemy line only to become surrounded, then cut their way back to Roman lines. This legion too participated in the Invasion of Britain and the subsequent Boudiccan Revolt before working on the construction of Hadrian’s Wall.

    Although never given such a name, the greatest legion of the Roman Army is coincidentally one of the longest-lived military units in the world, Legio X Gemina. Raised by Julius Caesar in 58 BC in preparation for his forays into Gaul, Legio X Equites, as it was then known, quickly developed a reputation as having the toughest, most skilled, and most devoted legionnaires in the entire army, with a string of victories to their credit during the bloody wars of Caesar. It was the Tenth that crushed the Belgae Gallic attack on the left flank during the massive ambush at the Battle of the Sambre, going on to lead the Romans in the slaughter of the enemy in excess of 30,000. Again Legio X proved its mettle in being the first of Caesar’s troops to hit Deal Beach in the first foray into Britain. After the murder of Caesar, the Tenth fought on the side of Octavian against the armies of Brutus and Cassius, their former commander’s murderers, at Philippi. In later years they participated in the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, ironically on the side of Mark Antony, rebelling against the adopted son of Caesar. The unit, now re-christened Legio X Gemina after the ascendance of Octavian, was part of the large army marched against the Cantabrians in Spain. Legio X was used to quell the Batavian Rebellion in 70 AD and participated in the incredibly savage Bar Kokhba Rebellion, in which over 500,000 individuals lost their lives, some 60 years later. The Tenth’s combat record continued in the later half of the 2nd century, fighting the Quadi and the Parthians during the reign of Marcus Aurelius with continued distinction.

    During the turbulent 3rd century AD, Legio X fought on the side of six emperors in the constant states of civil war that plagued the Empire. Despite the shifting political climate, the Legion was never disbanded, instead being awarded the title of Pia VI Fidelis VI, translating as “Six Times Faithful, Six Times Loyal”. Unlike many other legions, the Tenth survived in the Late Empire as Comitatensis Decima Gemina, listed in the Notitia Dignitatum in the 4th century AD, and likely continued on into the 5th century. As a result the Legion would have been active for roughly 500 years, essentially spanning the entire domination of Rome and making it one of the longest serving military units in the world and known simply as “The Tenth” in ancient times.

    The Palatinae Comitatenses were some of the last elite units of the classical world before the plunge into the Dark Ages. During the reign of Constantine the Great in the early 4th century AD, the Roman army was reorganized from the old legions and auxiliaries, into limitanei and comitatenses. The first were light border troops, while the later were heavily armed field infantry held farther back within Roman territory as a rapid reaction force. In the face of barbarian invasion, the limitanei would hold the line, allowing the comitateneses to arrive and defeat the enemy. Among the comitatenses there were elite units, known as Palatinae Comitatenses, usually translated as “palace” or “guard” units. These were veteran troops gathered together into the standard comitatensis sized legions of 1500 men, usually attached to a regional magister militum, or master of soldiers. Provinces around the Empire had regional commanders known as masters of soldiers, each one equipped with at least one unit of highly experienced soldiers in addition to his regular men for use on the battlefield. They provided a solid anchor for the army in the field and were renowned for their combat expertise. By the time of the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, and certainly after, many of the Palatinae Comitatenses legions had either been destroyed or disbanded, ending the proud history of the elite units of the Roman army.

    Persian Amrtaka

    in Unit Concepts

    Posted

    It is a term for the later Immortals, which may not be that precise for early Achaemenid troops. In particular it stands for "Court Takabara", or professional Persian light infantry of the later Persian Empire, using javelins and the Persian version of the pelta (taka). These were the leftover remnants of the earlier classic Immortal regiments that ended up facing Alexander the Great.

    That said it would be a good idea to change the name ;) The unit was named Amrtaka long before I came here and I never thought that much of it.

    Hard Boiled - The Ultimate Action Movie?

    in Arts and Entertainment

    Posted

    How many people die per minute? The answer to that question is quite easy: roughly 2 per minute. This impressive action flick by director John Woo runs 127 minutes long, during which 230 bodies hit the floor in various states of disassembly. It stars international action star Chow Yun-Fat along with Tony Leung as two Hong Kong cops taking on a particularly violent set of gun smuggling gangs. Violent and guns are perhaps the two most appropriate words to describe this movie. In fact in Nova Scotia it received a XXX rating for sheer violence; there is no sexual content at all, let alone any warranting such a severe rating. The violence however is abundantly plentiful, with at least 25 to 30 people dying within the first seven-and-a-half minutes. The near-apocalyptic end gun battle is a massive 30 minute firefight that turns an organized hospital into something akin to a second Stalingrad, with everything from Beretta 92s and Browning Hi-Powers to AK-47s and M-72 LAWs going off in a weapon aficianado's paradise.

    If anyone thought that action movies like Equilibrium, Kill Bill, and Replacement Killers were insane, one needs to see Hard Boiled to truly understand what movie mayhem can be. The feats of athleticism performed in the execution of these gunfights are a tribute to the various actors and stuntmen who performed them, creating a manic fast paced orgy of close quarter gun battles in which men jump through windows, across tables, down railings, on gurneys, and over vehicles in dizzying succession. And the ammunition used......... truly I am hard-pressed to think of another movie that fires more bullets than Hard Boiled. War movies like Blackhawk Down, Enemy at the Gates, the Band of Brothers miniseries, and Saving Private Ryan fire lots of ammunition, but not nearly in the quantities seen in this movie.

    Here in lies a funny fact about Hard Boiled, and part of its charm: I remember only two reloads during the entire movie off the top of my head ;) Chow Yun-Fat easily fires 100 plus rounds out of a pair of Tokarev TT-33s in two minutes without reloading, despite the fact that the weapon has a magazine of only 8-rounds. The same with a 12-gauge Mossberg 500 shotgun, which fires a dizzying succession of shells well in excess of its 7-round capacity. In addition the OO Buckshot fired by the various shotguns in the film prove to be highly explosive. This is a short list of the many technical hiccups of the movie, yet it is this reckless abandon for the mechanical capabilities of firearms and the physical capabilities of the human body in some cases that make this film truly and utterly FUN! It is a pure action film and it doesn't try to be anything different, it exists purely to blast off thousands of rounds of ammunition and throw people around like ragdolls for the sheer enjoyment of the viewer. Truly, the only thing that can match the amount of gunplay in this movie are video games like Halo: Combat Evolved and the lightning fast-paced Timesplitters series of FPS's.

    It is truly a homerun hit for any die hard action fan (was that a pun?) and anyone who ever fancies the chance to see Chow Yun-Fat in his prime, doing what he is known as a god for in Hong Kong. Yes it has its corny bits and the usual 2D villains, but this movie creates an adrenaline rush the likes of which I am sure can only be matched by flight in a supersonic aircraft 100 feet off the ground. There is an amazing one-take action sequence that takes place in a series of hallways, where the heroes make their way forward with guns and explosives going off, gangsters flying about in bloody heaps, rooms systematically trashed in the process, all in one continuous take.

    A must see film. If you like excessive violence and action with your movies, get a copy of Hard Boiled. It is possibly the most extreme action movie you will ever see in your lifetime, well worth the effort to track it down.

    10 out of 10

    Hard Boiled - IMDB

    Hard Boiled - Wikipedia

    Persian Amrtaka

    in Unit Concepts

    Posted

    Indeed, Persian soldiers did wear armor, especially elite troops such as the Immortals. It was not Persian military doctrine to have unarmored troops, it was just that most of the men they fielded were unable to procure armor of any kind, not being armed by the state in the form of a professional force. And while armor was worn under the clothing, Persian troops are shown in pieces of artwork to be wearing armor on top of their clothing, while Herodotus himself mentions the armor worn by the Immortals being shaped like the scales of a fish.

    Especially with the richer soldiers of the Persian army (cavalry, Immortals, etc), showing off armor would have advertised their status, something that one would not pass up in a feudal society such as the Achaemenid Empire.

  10. 0 A.D. in the Spotlight

    in Announcements / News

    Posted

    Recently GameDev.net interviewed several members of the 0 A.D. development staff for an exclusive look at the creation of the game for posting on their website. Members including Jason, Stuart, and Jan, among others, contributed their thoughts to GameDev's Jason Adams, who has posted this behind the scenes first look at the development of 0 A.D. Part I, in addition to some tidbits regarding Part II. Included in the interview are some original pieces of 0 A.D. artwork. Check it out! And take time to explore the GameDev site, a wonder unto its own.

    GameDev.net, for those of you new to that particular site, is a website created in 1999 to provide a home on the web for game developers, professional and hobbyist. A key feature of their website is their impressive collection of tutorials and their ongoing showcasing of games currently in development. Wildfire Games and the 0 A.D. development team would like to heartily thank GameDev.net for their help and support of 0 A.D.!

  11. Will Heavy Cav be able to trample?

    in General Discussion

    Posted

    The Macedonian and Roman heavily cavalry would routinely run down single or small groups of enemy combatants, it has been shown on several tombstones. Plus in close combat a horse would easily knock down men on foot while the wounded could not avoid taking the full weight of a horse. As for intended tactics of trying to trample enemy troops, no. But trampling is inherent to cavalry warfare through history, even before the stirrup.

  12. New Member, Showcase, and Articles

    in Announcements / News

    Posted · Edited by Paal_101

    After an obscenely long period of 31 days without a news update, Wildfire Games is proud to break its silence and announce a new team member from Kansas City, programmer Corin Schedler a.k.a. triumvir. Corin will assist with the entity and gameplay features of 0 A.D. "Corin" is an appropriate name to hold in 0 A.D. for the name is the French version of the Roman name Quirinus, the Sabine name for the God of War, Mars, and directly translated means "spear". That said, a most hearty welcome, Corin, to the Wildfire Games community and the development team! We look forward to working with you!

    Next, Michael has prepared an awesome game feature showcasing the Charge Ability available to various units within 0 A.D. In particular, the Celts are featured in the showcase as a tribute to their famous headlong charges into combat. Check the Showcase Gallery regularly for new gameplay features. Kudos to Michael on an excellent job!

    [img center]http://www.wildfiregames.com/~art/showcase/showcase-gameplay-charging-004(thumb).jpg[/img center]

    Check out the fullsize artwork and detailed information on this ability

    here.

    History articles have appeared in increasing quantity in the last few weeks. Joshua has produced some excellent articles covering such topics as the epic twin battles of Plataea and Mycale during the Greco-Persian War and a biographical portrait of one of Rome’s most unconquerable opponents, Mithradates VI of Pontus. In addition my own series of articles on ancient combat has been expanded by the addition of articles covering Armor and Weapons. Keep an eye out for more articles in the near future from the 0 A.D. History Department as new documents are always in the works.

    Laconian Counsel

    in Screenshots

    Posted

    Our logic is sheer practicality. No matter how tough your feet, without footware your feet would be worn raw. Spartan or not :P An arguably just as elite force such as the Roman army wore sandals, as well there are references to sandals worn in the army of Prince Cyrus by mercenary hoplites, recorded by Xenophon.

    Laconian Counsel

    in Screenshots

    Posted

    Actually Greeks wore sandals in combat, however that was not often shown in their artwork. Frankly there are very few armies in history that used barefoot soldiers. Granted a large number of Greeks were barefoot, but that left them vulnerable to rocks and dropped weapons on the battlefield. Sheer practicallity demands it and almost all Greek reenactment groups wear sandals, and I'm talking about groups that argue over the kinds of needles used to sew clothing for the most historically accurate approach.

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